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|
Acknowledgments |
|
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation of China (41421001), Science & Technology Basic Research Program of China (2013FY114600 and 2011FY110400), Construction Project of the China Knowledge Center for Engineering Sciences and Technology (CKCEST-2017-3-1), and Cultivate Project of the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Science (No. TSYJS03). The authors would like to express their gratitude for data support from the Data Sharing Platform of Earth System Science, National Science & Technology Infrastructure of China. |
|
Author Contributions |
|
Juanle Wang was responsible for the research design and analysis and designed and reviewed the manuscript. Junxiang Zhu drafted the manuscript and was responsible for data preparation, image interpretation, experiment, and analysis. Xuehua Han was responsible for the data processing and archiving. All authors contributed to editing and reviewing the manuscript. |
|
Conflicts of Interest |
|
The authors declare no conflict of interest. |
|
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Figures and Tables |
|
Figure 1 |
|
Locations of study sites. |
|
< graphic xmlns = "" xlink:href = "ijgi-07-00013-g001.tif" /> |
|
Figure 2 |
|
An ideal curve of a semivariogram with a range of 10 and a sill of 30. |
|
Figure 3 |
|
Workflow of this study. |
|
Figure 4 |
|
Semivariograms for: built area ( |
|
a |
|
); farmland ( |
|
b |
|
); forest ( |
|
c |
|
); grassland ( |
|
d |
|
); and water ( |
|
e |
|
), via sub-area method (SAM). |
|
Figure 5 |
|
Semivariograms for: built area ( |
|
a |
|
); farmland ( |
|
b |
|
); forest ( |
|
c |
|
); grassland ( |
|
d |
|
); water ( |
|
e |
|
); and overall ( |
|
f |
|
) based on direct-analysis method (DAM). |
|
Figure 6 |
|
Probability distributions for the built area ( |
|
red |
|
), farmland ( |
|
green |
|
), forest ( |
|
blue |
|
), grassland ( |
|
black |
|
), and water ( |
|
yellow |
|
). |
|
Figure 7 |
|
Relationship between the group number ( |
|
GN |
|
) and fitting R |
|
2 |
|
for Ansai’s forest ( |
|
a |
|
), grassland ( |
|
b |
|
), farmland ( |
|
c |
|
), Taihe’s forest ( |
|
d |
|
), grassland ( |
|
e |
|
), farmland ( |
|
f |
|
), and Changdu’s forest ( |
|
g |
|
), grassland ( |
|
h |
|
), farmland ( |
|
i |
|
); the |
|
x |
|
-axis is |
|
GN |
|
, and the |
|
y |
|
-axis is R |
|
2 |
|
. |
|
Figure 8 |
|
Relationship between sample size ( |
|
SS |
|
) and R |
|
2 |
|
for Ansai’s forest ( |
|
a |
|
), grassland ( |
|
b |
|
), farmland ( |
|
c |
|
), Taihe’s forest ( |
|
d |
|
), grassland ( |
|
e |
|
), farmland ( |
|
f |
|
), and Changdu’s forest ( |
|
g |
|
), grassland ( |
|
h |
|
), farmland ( |
|
i |
|
); the |
|
x |
|
-axis is |
|
SS |
|
and the |
|
y |
|
-axis is R |
|
2 |
|
. |
|
Figure 9 |
|
Relationship between the simulation times and standard deviation of average fitting ranges for forest ( |
|
blue |
|
), grassland ( |
|
green |
|
), and farmland ( |
|
red |
|
) in Ansai County. |
|
Figure 10 |
|
Land cover maps for: ( |
|
a |
|
) Ansai County; ( |
|
b |
|
) Taihe County; and ( |
|
c |
|
) Changdu County. |
|
Figure 11 |
|
Probability distributions for the ranges for: Ansai County ( |
|
a |
|
); Taihe County ( |
|
b |
|
); and Changdu County ( |
|
c |
|
). |
|
Figure 12 |
|
Appropriate scales for forest, grassland, and farmland at the study sites. |
|
Figure 13 |
|
Proportion of the area of the ground features in: ( |
|
a |
|
) Ansai; ( |
|
b |
|
) Taihe; and ( |
|
c |
|
) Changdu. |
|
ijgi-07-00013-t001_Table 1 |
|
Table 1 |
|
Image bands and sampling cell size. |
|
Items |
|
Detail |
|
Blue |
|
440–510 nm |
|
Green |
|
520–590 nm |
|
Red |
|
630–685 nm |
|
Red Edge |
|
690–730 nm |
|
Infrared |
|
760–850 nm |
|
Sampling cell |
|
6.5 m |
|
ijgi-07-00013-t002_Table 2 |
|
Table 2 |
|
Image number and capture date. |
|
Region |
|
Number |
|
Capture Date |
|
Ansai County |
|
4 |
|
3 |
|
1 |
|
September 2010, 1 October 2010 |
|
Taihe County |
|
4 |
|
1 November 2011, 2 September 2012, 1 October 2010 |
|
Changdu County |
|
5 |
|
2 September 2010 |
|
1 |
|
The values in parentheses indicate the number of images captured on that date. |
|
ijgi-07-00013-t003_Table 3 |
|
Table 3 |
|
Image interpretation, indexes used and values. |
|
County |
|
Visual Interpretation |
|
Object-Based Automatic Interpretation |
|
Ansai County |
|
Farmland, built area, and river |
|
Forest (NDVI > 0.3), grassland (NDVI > 0.05), lake (NDWI > 0.3), barren (Brightness > 5600), others (all the rest) |
|
Taihe County |
|
Built area and river |
|
Lake (NDWI > 0.25), farmland (NDSI > −0.17), forest (NDVI > 0.25 and Brightness < 4260), barren (Brightness > 5500), grassland (NDVI > 0), other (all the rest) |
|
Changdu County |
|
Farmland, built area and water |
|
Forest (DN < 1950), grassland (NDVI > 0.07), others (all the rest) |
|
ijgi-07-00013-t004_Table 4 |
|
Table 4 |
|
R |
|
2 |
|
values for the exponential and spherical models. |
|
< th rowspan = "2" align = "center" valign = "middle" style = "border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" /> |
|
Ansai County |
|
Taihe County |
|
Changdu County |
|
Forest |
|
Grass |
|
Farmland |
|
Forest |
|
Grass |
|
Farmland |
|
Forest |
|
Grass |
|
Farmland |
|
Exponential |
|
0.93 |
|
0.94 |
|
0.79 |
|
0.92 |
|
0.90 |
|
0.81 |
|
0.87 |
|
0.56 |
|
0.89 |
|
Spherical |
|
0.56 |
|
0.61 |
|
0.49 |
|
0.36 |
|
0.38 |
|
0.50 |
|
0.38 |
|
0.27 |
|
0.39 |
|
ijgi-07-00013-t005_Table 5 |
|
Table 5 |
|
Standard deviation of the ranges. |
|
< th rowspan = "2" align = "center" valign = "middle" style = "border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" /> |
|
Ansai County |
|
Taihe County |
|
Changdu County |
|
Forest |
|
Grassland |
|
Farmland |
|
Forest |
|
Grassland |
|
Farmland |
|
Forest |
|
Grassland |
|
Farmland |
|
Before (B) |
|
24.5 |
|
29.8 |
|
92.9 |
|
142.4 |
|
110.5 |
|
167.9 |
|
81.9 |
|
418.2 |
|
127.5 |
|
After (A) |
|
10.9 |
|
13.4 |
|
5.8 |
|
137.9 |
|
74.9 |
|
22.4 |
|
62.4 |
|
7053.7 |
|
34.3 |
|
A−B |
|
−13.6 |
|
−16.4 |
|
−87.1 |
|
−4.5 |
|
−35.6 |
|
−145.5 |
|
−19.5 |
|
6635.5 |
|
−93.2 |
|
Percentage |
|
55.5% |
|
55.0% |
|
93.8% |
|
3.2% |
|
32.2% |
|
86.7% |
|
23.8% |
|
------ |
|
73.1% |
|
ijgi-07-00013-t006_Table 6 |
|
Table 6 |
|
Accuracy assessment of the classification results for Ansai, Taihe, and Changdu. |
|
< th align = "center" valign = "middle" style = "border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" /> |
|
Overall Accuracy |
|
Kappa Coefficient |
|
Ansai County |
|
0.89 |
|
0.87 |
|
Taihe County |
|
0.88 |
|
0.86 |
|
Changdu County |
|
0.89 |
|
0.87 |
|
ijgi-07-00013-t007_Table 7 |
|
Table 7 |
|
Applicable satellite imagery for general ground features in pilot areas. |
|
< th align = "center" valign = "middle" style = "border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin" /> |
|
Ground Features |
|
Average Size (m) |
|
Maximum Resolution (m) |
|
Applicable Satellite Imagery |
|
Ansai County |
|
Forest |
|
45 |
|
15 |
|
e.g., Landsat 8 (15 m) |
|
Grassland |
|
39 |
|
13 |
|
e.g., Sentinel-2A (10 m) |
|
Farmland |
|
63 |
|
21 |
|
e.g., CBERS-2 (20 m) |
|
Taihe County |
|
Forest |
|
433 |
|
144 |
|
e.g., CBERS-2 (20 m) |
|
Grassland |
|
217 |
|
72 |
|
e.g., CBERS-2 (20 m) |
|
Farmland |
|
58 |
|
19 |
|
e.g., Landsat 8 (15 m) |
|
Changdu County |
|
Forest |
|
108 |
|
36 |
|
e.g., CBERS-2 (20 m) |
|
Grassland |
|
1308 |
|
436 |
|
e.g., CBERS-2 (20 m) |
|
Farmland |
|
98 |
|
32 |
|
e.g., CBERS-2 (20 m) |